Safety of recycled water for drinking

Introduction Water recycling is the process by which individuals harness, treat and reuse water for various purposes. It may occur through water reclamation. This involves the treatment of sewage effluent for domestic and commercial use. Alternatively, recycled water may come from storm water or rain water.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Safety of recycled water for drinking specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Potable use is the human consumption of recycled water while planned reuse refers to deliberate treatment of wastewater for other uses. Recycled water holds a lot of promise in the field of agriculture and industry, but its application as a potable source is still quite contentious, limited and risky. Whether recycled water is safe for drinking The question of whether recycled water is safe for drinking is of high relevance to a discussion on water-borne diseases because raw waste water contains high amounts of faecal matter, so it takes a rigorous and fool proof method to eradicate all disease-causing pathogens in recycled waste water. Ashbolt (2004) explains that ingestion of unsafe drinking water transmits waterborne diseases. Usually, the water supply system of predisposed communities is susceptible to faecal contamination; over 1415 species of pathogens can be found in untreated waste water. Urine and faeces transmit these illnesses and may lead to severe complications or death. Typical examples include cholera, typhoid, gastroenteritis, infectious hepatitis, bacillary dysentery and amoeba, rotavirus, Escherichia Coli and Guardia Lamblia. Treatment of waste water may minimise certain pathogens, but in highly infected water, it is difficult to eliminate all of them. Furthermore, recycling methods need to correspond to the development of new water-borne diseases. Scientists must also be aware of the genetic evolution of pathogens, which may make conventional treatment methods inadequ ate. Chemicals may also threaten public health if present in recycled water. Conventional treatment may eliminate some chemicals, but could leave trace elements. Esposito et. al. (2005) affirm that the health effects of trace contaminants are still unclear at this point. Some organic compounds can disrupt hormonal systems even under extremely low concentrations. The international public health community is yet to create standards that would regulate treatment of waste water. Therefore, parties must use a multi-thronged approach which would require elimination of all the threats at different levels (Steyn et. al. 2004). This is not just painstaking; it may cause excessive use of municipal and government resources. Toze (2006) explains that membrane filtration is one of the few effective routes of treating wastewater for portable use. However, it is quite expensive and takes a long time to complete. Jimenez and Chavez (2004) underscore the need for rigor in the treatment of wastewater for domestic purposes.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More They assert that one must follow the fate of all the pollutants in the effluent in order to ascertain that they are absent. Esposito et. al. (2005) also outline some of the processes that waste water must go through during treatment. Disinfection and filtration systems in combination with secondary water treatment are effective for removing a portion of pathogens. The resulting product would only be sufficient for irrigation or non potable use. On the other hand, ultrafiltration would minimise the risks associated with suspended particles. Sometimes certain pathogens are resistant to these processes. For instance, if one uses tertiary treatment on recycled water, one is likely to find viruses like cryptosporidium (Toze 2006). Elimination of chemicals is also essential in making recycled water safe for ingestion. It wo uld include the use of a series of treatments like nano-filtration, advanced oxidation as well as reverse osmosis. Ion exchange, biological degradation and chemical precipitation, are some synonyms of the above processes (Morud 2009). Owing to the complexity and diversity of disease-causing organisms and compounds in raw waste water, it is difficult to assure consumers of complete eradication of these pathogens in drinking water. A number of advocates claim that recycled water is safe for drinking because water supply for key cities still comes from downstream rivers, which contain sewage effluent. However, using such a justification would be replacing one ill with another. It is one thing for cities to source their water from downstream rivers, with possible sewage contaminants. On the other hand, when the concerned institution deliberately takes sewage effluent, then this increases the concentration of pathogens (DTI 14). It would increase the health risks of the population substa ntially when countries replace contaminated river water with sewage effluent. Toze (2006) states that the concentration of pathogens in raw water supply highly affects the risks associated with treated waste water. If these sources have a high concentration of pathogens, health risks would increase. The author further states that treatment methods in current use leave certain pathogens in waste water. Cities such as New York are already investing so much in the cleanup of their water supply systems or estuaries (Esposito et. al. 2005). Furthermore, public health officials suggest the placement of barriers as an effective method of protecting the masses form recycled water risks. One way would be preventing direct contact with contaminants. Therefore, it would almost retrogressive to use sewage effluent if it is already perceived as a health problem in many parts of the world.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Safety of recycled water for drinking specifically fo r you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Evidence from real-life cases is not sufficient to warrant consideration of recycled water for ingestion. Case studies on potable water reuse are few and hard to analyse. For instance, Anderson (2003) cites Orange County, in California, as one example. The county built a water reclamation plant that would treat water to drinking standard. Not only did it employ a series of aquifers, but it also injected the water under high pressure. After fifteen years of intensive work, the recycled water was still not used for drinking. Po et. al. (2003) also talks about the controversies involved in portable reuse. For instance, Singapore worked on a project known as NEWater. The government wanted the project to curb dependence on other countries for water supply. The Singaporean government even packaged the commodity in bottles such that the public could drink it conveniently. However, this plan did not work as few were willing to drink it. While the failure of the project failed due to public squeamishness towards the product, it still denied advocates of recycled water for potable use from having a tangible case study that could support their stand. Sometimes politics may come in the way of successful implementation of such projects. Scientific backing may exist to support the safety of a water reclamation project. However, if lobbyists and other political groups undermine the implementation of the scheme, then one cannot study the immediate and long term effects of ingesting recycled water. As a result, it is not possible to make conclusive statements about the project. Namibia is a recurrent case study in water recycling analyses. The city has been consuming recycled water from as far back as 1968. However, people rarely use recycled water directly in this country. Residents prefer blending the recycled water with conventional water. Sometimes the blend may be as high as 1:1 or may account for a quarte r of the system in use (Anderson 2003). Direct portable reuse is not widespread because it requires transportation of recycled water from treatment plants into people’s homes. The public and the scientific community are still not certain about the rigors of the treatment process. Therefore, many of them prefer to go for the indirect potable route (Marks et. al. 2006). If the pioneer of recycled water for potable use (Namibia) still cannot place all their confidence in reclaimed water, then one should question the plausibility of using the product for personal and human consumption. Conclusion Recycled water is not safe for drinking because of the health risks involved. Conventional treatment methods do not eliminate all microbes or chemical contaminants, and this could be dangerous. Additionally, few case studies exist to analyse the long term effect of 100% use (without blending) of recycled water among the masses.Advertising Looking for essay on environmental studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Therefore, one cannot employ the method without support from conventional treatment systems. Finally, deliberate introduction of wastewater into water supply systems would increase the number of contaminants that require eradication, and this would pose a greater health risk than contaminated downstream water. Unless stakeholders eradicate these bottlenecks, then recycled water should not be treated as safe for drinking. References Anderson, J 2003 ‘The environmental benefits of water recycling and reuse’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 3 no. 4, pp. 1-10. Ashbolt, N 2004 ‘Microbial contamination of drinking water and disease outcomes in developing regions’, Technology, vol. 198 no. 3, pp. 229-238. DTI 200 ‘Water recycling and reuse in Singapore and Australia’, DTI Global Watch Mission Report, November, p. 1-79. Esposito, K, Tsuchihashi, R, Anderson, J Selstrom, J 2005, ‘The role of water reclamation in water resources management in t he 21st Century’, Water Environment, vol. 101 no. 4, 8621-8635. Jimenez, B Chavez, A 2004, ‘Quality assessment of potential use of an aquifer recharged with wastewater’, Water Science Technology, vol. 50 no. 2, pp. 269-76. Marks, J, Martin, B Zadoroznyi, M 2006, ‘Acceptance of water recycling in Australia: national baseline data’, Water, March, p. 152-159. Morud, J 2009, Reclamation and reuse of wastewater, IUP, Iowa. Po, M, Kaercher, D Nancarrow, B 2003, ‘Literature review of factors influencing public perceptions of water reuse’, CSIRO Land and Water Technical Report, vol. 54 no. 3, pp. 1-33. Steyn, M, Jagals, P Genthe, B 2004, ‘Assessment of microbial infection risks posed by ingestion of water during domestic water use and full contact recreation in a mid southern African region’, Water Science and Technology, vol. 50 no. 1, pp. 301-308. Toze, S 2006, ‘Water reuse and health risks-real vs. Perceived’, De salination, vol. 187 no. 8, pp. 41-51. 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African Economy essays

African Economy essays Ghana is an African country located on the western side of Africa. Its neighbors are Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and Cote D'Ivoire to the west. It has a population of 18,100, 703 and a population density of 197 people per square mile. Ghana is 92,098 square miles and English is its official language. The capital city of Accra has around 1, 673,000 people residing in it. There are the physical statistics, now onto the more interesting part. The country's greatest strengths lie in its natural resources. In those terms, it is very rich. Cocoa, its biggest export, accounts for 15% of the world's supply. Also its gold production, in recent years, it's exported as many as one million fine ounces. Ghana also has a good supply of bauxite, diamonds, coffee, rice, cassava, timber and rubber. Moreover, since 1983, the economy has steadily grown. With economic recovery policies intact, the economy has raised 5% a year since 1983. Tourism also is growing within Ghana. Tourist rates are increasing also. With all these cash crops, costly goods, and economic restructuring, one would wonder why they need assistance at all. Ghana's weaknesses though, almost outweigh the strengths. Like most countries in Africa, Ghana is in heavy debt since its independence in 1957. It also suffers from high budget deficits. All of the foreign investors that come in only invest in the gold fields. The richest business, Ghana isn't getting that profit. Because of clearing the land for farm use and urbanization, 70% of the forest has been destroyed. With the new urban communities and mining, pollution is a very serious problem in this small nation. As for other statistics that are related, its farming does well because of the two rainy seasons. There is only one doctor for every 12,523 people, but because of hygienic lessons, that doesn't cause too much of a problem. The major caus ...

Trainspotting Movie Review Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Trainspotting - Movie Review Example Renton, Spud, Sick Boy, Tommy and the violent Begbie were all friends, lived in Scotland and hated it. They hated the dull life of Scotland. The story of the film revolves around Renton and his attempts to give up the heroin-addiction and to come out of the negative influence of his friends Tommy, Spud, and Sick Boy. The story also follows Tommy, Spud, Sick Boy and Begbie; their stories are beautifully projected in the film and their characters have displayed different aspects of the contemporary society of Scotland. It is said that Trainspotting is not a British film at all; rather, it is a Scottish film which strongly asserts uniqueness of Scotland and does not associate itself with the general tourist-version package of Scotland. The film establishes the fact that Scotland also has a distinctive and healthy school of cinema. Trainspotting can be considered as a milestone of a ‘new Scottish cinema,’ which is quite different from all the stereotype movies made in Scotla nd in the past. It denies the Tartary and kailyardism which was imposed by outside filmmakers and by embracing contemporary and urban Scotland; it has became a milestone of Scottish film industry. Trainspotting: An evaluation The story of the movie is narrated by shifting narrators. ... The alienation of Renton has been beautifully highlighted in the night-club sequence in Edinburgh when his friends were dancing and he was shown standing alone in a corner of a room. Renton has lost his sex drive due to his drug addiction which is returned in a vengeance and the days and memories of impotency and the days after that has been remarkably shown in the movie and Renton’s desperation, his lustful mind and his happiness after regaining potency make the audience laugh but at the same time raise serious notes. The movie Trainspotting seems to lack a defined time frame which sometimes becomes confusing. For instance, the duration of fibula is not known, the duration of Renton’s stay in London is not clear, or the time taken by Tommy for his experiments with heroin and his death. The film has a couple of flashbacks and a couple of flash-forwards and it appears like different episodes of soap. The director of the film is basically a director of soap-serials which is quite visible in the movie. â€Å"Trainspotting also cuts across genres mixing realism with fantasy, offering the characters. The redemption of material impoverishment through aesthetic transformation. The film depicts poverty realistically, but in a way that encompasses the possibility of escape as well as entrapment, and in exploiting the aesthetics of film draws ‘a kind of vitality from grinding poverty† (Smith). Scotland is considered a beautiful tourist spot of Britain which has a lot of scenic beauties but Trainspotting has failed to represent Scotland in an ostentatious way; on the contrary, it has been displayed in a banal manner. The depiction of Scotland is quite dull and dark whereas London has been portrayed as bright, warm and colorful and it clearly highlights